Chapter 5 Meaning

第一部分Meanings of “meaning”

一、The Study of Meaning：

1. Meaning:refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.

2. Connotation: opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the connotation of human is "biped", "featherless", and "rational", etc.

3. Denotation: involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity it refers to. So it is equivalent to referential meaning. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary.

二、Seven types of meaning (Recognized by Leech) 三大类七种论述

1.Conceptual meaning:

Logical, cognitive, or denotative content of language. It is the essential part of language and similar to literal meaning.

E.g. What's this? It's a … (desk, boy, dog…). When you answer this question, you are expressing the conceptual meaning of language.

Associative meaning: same in conceptual meaning but different in implication.

2.Connotative meaning:

What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.

E.g. “mother” implies love, “blue” implies depressed.

3.Social meaning:

What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. It mainly involves dialect and status.

E.g. Different style of words like horse and pony imply different social circumstances of language use.

4.Affective meaning:

What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/ writer. It involves the choice of commendatory or derogatory meanings of words.

E.g. The difference between statesman and politician is connotative because the former is commendatory and the latter is derogatory .

5.Reflected meaning:

What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.

E.g. Click the mouse twice. (Mouse may remind you of either the part of a computer or a kind of animal who is clicked twice by Tom in the cartoon Tom and Jerry.)

6.Collocative meaning:

What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.

E.g. Different meanings of paper are expressed in its collocation with "exam, white and daily"

7.Thematic meaning:

What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.

E.g. I hit a dog. A dog was hit by me.

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第二部分Referential theory

1.The referential theory:

The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. We explain the meaning of a word by pointing to the thing it refers to.

E.g. proper nouns and definite noun phrases.

Problem with this theory: the meaning of desk:

When we explain the meaning of desk by pointing to the thing it refers to, we don’t mean a desk must be of the particular size, shape, color and material as the desk we are pointing to at the moment of speaking. We are using this particular desk as an example of something more general.

2.Semantic triangle:

A theory which employs the notion “concept”. Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”. They argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by the concept. In a diagram form, the relation can be showed as follows:

concept

word thing

And something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.

3.Sense and reference

Sense and reference are two sides of meaning. Although they are different, they are closely to each other.

1. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Sense refers to the main features, the defining properties an entity has.

2. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

E.g. The sense of desk: a piece of furniture with a flap top and four legs, at which one reads and writes. Sense is equivalent to concept. The concept of desk may also be called the sense of desk. The concrete entities a particular desk in the world is reference.

3. The distinction between sense and reference:

① It is comparable between connotation and denotation. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties.

① Every word has a sense, or we will not be able to use it or understand it. But not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and don’t refer to anything. Words like God, ghost, and dragon refer to imaginary things, which don’t exist in reality. Abstract words like love don’t have a concrete entities in the world.

① Words are in different sense relations with each other. Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. In contrast, reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.

第三部分sense Relations

There are three kinds of sense relations, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation.

1. Synonymy 同义关系

Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation. Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. e.g. buy and purchase. Synonym refers to the words that are closed in meaning.

But total synonymy is rare. It can be divided into two sub-types: absolute synonymy (they are identical in meaning.) and relative synonymy (they are similar in meaning.).

The so-called synonymy are all context dependent. E.g.Little Tom ____ a toy bear. (buy/ purchase)

1) dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects.There are dialectal differences.

E.g. Autumn is British while fall is America.

2) stylistic synonyms: they may differ in style.

E. g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence.

3) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning.

E. g. thrifty-economical-stingy

4)collocational synonyms:

E. g. accuse…of, charge…with.

5) semantic synonyms:

E. g. amaze, surprise.

2. Antonymy 反义关系

Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three sub-types: gradable, complementary, and converse antonymy.

1) Gradable antonymy

Gradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. They are mainly adjectives, e.g. good / bad, big / small, etc. They have three characteristics:

First, they are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. E.g. big, medium, small.

Second, antonymy of this kind are graded against different norms. E.g. big dog, small dog; big cat, small cat.

Third, one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term. E.g. old covers young, high covers low.

2) Complementary antonymy

The members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.

E.g. alive / dead, boy / girl, etc.

There is no intermediate forms between the two. The adjectives of this kind can’t be modified by very, and they don’t have comparative or superlative degrees either. The norm in this type is absolute, and there is no cover term for the two members of a pair.

3) Converse antonymy

Converse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy, because the members of a pair don’t constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy / sell. The comparative degrees like bigger: smaller, longer: shorter.

3. Hyponymy 上下义关系

The sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Inclusiveness意义内包关系:

Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.

Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.

Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.

Hyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. E.g. under flower, there are peony, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of rose, peony, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, tulip, violet, rose, etc. are co-hyponyms.

4. Polysemy 多义现象

Polysemy means the same one word may have more than one meaning. A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word. Historically polysemy can be understood as the growth and development or change in the meaning of words.

E.g. “table” may mean a piece of furniture, all the people seated at a table, or the food that is put on a table, etc.

5. Homonymy 同音异义

Homonymy means different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. There are three kinds of homonyms:

①Full homonyms: words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.

E.g. bear (n. a kind of animal), bear(v. to give birth to a baby)

②Homophones: words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.

E.g. dear (a loved person), deer (a kind of animal)

③Homographs: words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.

E.g. tear (n.), tear (v.)

6. Sense relations between sentences 句子之间的涵义关系

1) X is synonymous with Y X与Y同义

X: The boy killed the cat.

Y: The cat was killed by the boy.

If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.

2) X is inconsistent with Y X与Y不一致

X: He is single.

Y: He has a wife.

If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.

3) X entails Y X 蕴含在Y里

X: Marry has been to Beijing.

Y: Marry has been to China.

Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.

If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be false.

4) X presupposes Y X预设Y

X: His bike needs repairing.

Y: He has a bike.

If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.

5) X is a contradiction X是矛盾的

* My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

6) X is semantically anomalous X是异常的

* The man is pregnant.

第四部分Componential analysis

Semantic components: the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It is a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analysed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE.

优：①By showing the semantic components of a word in this way, we may better account for sense relations. Two words, or two expressions, which have the same semantic components will be synonymous with each other. For example, bachelor and unmarried man.

②And these semantic components will also explain sense relations between sentences.

弊：①One difficulty is that many words are polysemous. They have more than one meaning, consequently they will have different sets of semantic components.

②Some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies.

③There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain.

第五部分Sentence meaning

一、Sentence meaning 句子意义

The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that the sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words. Sentences using the same words may mean quite differently if they are arranged in different orders. E.g.

The man chased the dog. (人追狗。)

The dog chased the man. (狗追人。)

Even when two sentences mean similarly, they are still different in thematic meaning. E.g.

I’ve already seen that film. (我看过那场电影)

That film I’ve already seen. (那场电影我看过)

We need not only know the linear order of a sentence, but also the hierarchical structure. E.g.

The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.

二、An integrated theory 语义整体理论

1) Compositionality (组合原则)：

A principle for sentence analysis, the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.

2) The integrated theory：

The basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules.

The dictionary: provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words.

The projection rules: are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.

(The semantic information can be divided into two parts:the information is of a more general nature, is shown by semantic markers; the information which is more idiosyntactic, word-specific, is shown by distinguisher.)

3) Selection restrictions:

Restrictions on the choice of individual lexical units in construction with other units.

E.g. the word breathe will typically select an animate subject (boy, woman, etc.) not an abstract or an inanimate (table, book, etc.). The boy was still breathing. The desk was breathing.

4) Problems in an integrated theory:

First, the distinction between semantic marker and distinguisher is not very clear.

Second, there are cases in which the collocation of words can’t be accounted for by grammatical markers, or semantic markers or selection restrictions.

The most serious defect concerns the use of semantic markers like (Human) and (Male), which more usually called semantic components, are elements of an artificial meta-language.

To explain the meaning of man in terms of (Human), (Male) and (Adult), one must go on to explain the meaning of these semantic markers themselves, otherwise it means nothing.

三、Logical Semantics 逻辑语义学

We introduce some of their basic ideas, especially propositional logic and predicate logic.

① Propositional logic 命题逻辑：(propositional calculus 命题演算/sentential calculus句子演算)

It is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.

A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement. 命题是陈述句被用于陈述事件时所表达的意义。

An important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value. It is either true or false. The truth value of a composite proposition is the function of, or is determined by, the truth values of its component propositions and the logical connectives used in it.

Propositional logic is concerned with the semantic relation between propositions, and treats a simple proposition as an unanalyzed whole.

① Predicate logic 谓词逻辑: (predicate calculus 谓词演算)

Predicate logic studies the internal structure of simple propositions. A proposition is analyzed into two parts: argument and predicate.

An argument is a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made.

A predicate is a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred to.

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. 加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and what they refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds, lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms and meanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and what they refer to. 1.5 Functions of language As is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. three metafunctions: 1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is

Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)

Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background

9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language

9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition

-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?

第11章第二语言和外语教学 11.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The relation between linguistics and language teaching 语言学与语言教学之间的关系 2. Grammar, input and language learning 语法、输入与语言学习 3. Interlanguage in language teaching 语言教学中的中介语 4. Linguistics and syllabus design 语言学与教学大纲设计 5. Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析 6. Corpus linguistics and language teaching 语料库语言学与语言教学 常考考点： 语言学与语言教学的关系；语言学与语言学习；语言学与教学大纲设计；二语学习者的主要障碍；对比分析与错误分析；中介语；语料库语言学与语言教学等。

本章内容索引： I. Definition of Applied Linguistics II. The Relation between Linguistics and Language Teaching III. Linguistics and Language Learning 1. Grammar and Language Learning 2. Input and Language Learning 3. Interlanguage in Language Learning IV. Linguistics and Language T eaching 1. The discourse-based view of language teaching 2. The universal grammar (UG) and language teaching V. Syllabus Design 1. Syllabus and curriculum 2. Theoretical views behind syllabus design 3. Types of syllabus (1) The structural syllabus (2) The situational syllabus (3) The communicative syllabus (4) The task-based syllabus 4. Current trends in syllabus design (1) The co-existence of the old and the new (2) The emphasis on the learning process

英语语言学教程（胡壮麟版） Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language? “Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Ch inese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2.Design Features of Language. “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4)Displacement: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1)Phatic function: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2)Directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer

英语语言学教程(胡壮麟版) Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1. What is language? “ Languageis system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains a is explained by the fact that different languages have different “ books ”“:book ”in English, “ livre in” French, “shu” ii n eCseh. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “ human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. 2. Design Features of Language. “ Design features ” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability (1) Arbitrariness: By “ arbitrariness ”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. (2) Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. (3) Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one?s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances, including utterances that they have never previously encountered. (4) Displacement: “ Displacement ”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. (5) Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. (6) Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 3. Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. (1) Phatic function: The “ phaticfunction r”efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. (2) Directive function: The “ directive function ”thamt laenagnusage may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the res you finish. ” (3) Informative function: Language serves an “ informational function ”when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). (4) Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “ interrogat

第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：

I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar

语言学：It studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted,and perceived.研究语音的发生、传递和感知 2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出

Chapter3 Lexicon Lexical change

3.1 What is word? 3.1.1 Three senses of word 3.1.2 Identification of words 1) stability 2) Relative uninterruptibility 3) A minimum free form 3.1.3 Classification of words 1) Variable and invariable words 2) Grammatical words and lexical words 3) closed-class words and open

3.2 The Formation of Word 3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology Morpheme destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 2) Morphology which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.

3.2.2 Types of morphemes 1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme 2) Root, affix and stem 3) Inflectional affix and derivational affix ?Inflectional affixes often only add a minute or delicate grammat to the stem, therefore serve to produce different forms of a sin derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. ?Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word th whereas derivational affixes might or might not. ?Inflectional affixes are conditioned by the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence; deriv

第7章Language, Culture and Society 第一部分Language and culture 一、Language and culture 语言与文化的关系 In a broad sense, culture means the total way of a people, including the patterns of beliefs, language, institutions, techniques, customs, and objects that shape the life of the human community. In a narrow sense, culture may mean local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc. The relationships are as follows: (1) Culture is a wider system that includes language as a subsystem. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. (2) Culture affects language. Culture universals and biological universals lead to linguistic universals. E.g. the seven days of a week. In addition, different cultural features produce different linguistic features. E.g. “24 jie qi” in Chinese. (3) Language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. A language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflects the people’s beliefs, attitudes and world outlooks etc. (4) Language plays an important role in perpetuating culture over time, especially, in print form. Therefore, on the one hand, language as an integral part of human beings, runs through his thinking and way of viewing the world. On the other hand, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. 二、The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis This hypothesis suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speaker’s unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, there are two important points in this theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between languages is relative. And this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. Consequently, two versions of the hypothesis have been developed, a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical. 三、Culture in language teaching classroom? 怎样实现；两者关系 There are at least three objectives for us to teach culture in our class: (1)To get the students familiar with cultural differences; (2)To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will; (3)To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices. Therefore, successful mastery of a given language has much to do with an understanding of that culture, because language and culture are correlated with each other at different levels of linguistic structure. 四、Firth 语境说的观点 Firth tried to set up a model to illustrate the close relationships between language use and its co-occurrent factors. He developed the theory of context of situation: